Homework #23

#31-38 pg. 235

31. a. propane
      b. pentane
32. It means that carbon has four bonds
33. Yes. Although they are different in appearance in structure, the chemical makeup of all three isomers are identical.
34. See paper
35. The shortest alkaine would be CH4
36. Both ways are correct because it doesn't matter the physical appearance of the hydrocarbon molecule, as long as the chemical equation is correct.
37. a. See paper
      b. The branched chain would have the lower boiling point because its structure enables it to reach lower temperatures.
38. a. the short straight chain
      b. long branched chain
      c. short branched chain

#1-10 pg. 258

1. Petroleum is sometimes considered "buried sunshine" because the energy released by burning these fossil fuels represents energy originally captured from sunlight by prehistoric green plants during photosynthesis.

2. a. a skateboard at the top of a hill
    b. a skateboard in motion

3. When an energy-releasing chemical reaction takes place bonds break and reactant atoms reorganize to form new bonds.

4. Methane has more potential energy than butane.

5. a. potential
    b. potential
    c. kinetic
    d. potential
    e. kinetic

6. Energy is required to break chemical bonds the endothermic process in bond breaking and how much energy is given off, which is an exothermic reaction in bond making.

7. a. exothermic
    b. endothermic
    c. exothermic

8. Burning a candle is an exothermic reaction because the energy needed to light the candle is greater than the burning of the candle itself.

9. See paper.

10. Energy is neither created nor destroyed in any mechanical, physical, or chemical process.

Homework #22

Unit 4 B3 #1-4

1. Ultraviolet radiation is much more harmful than infrared radiation because it can cause more damage to a living being, because of its high radioactive properties. Infrared is essentially heat, which is not fatal.

2. Photosynthesis, solar panels.

3. The weather tends to vary in those areas due to the climate. The pressure and humidity in some of these areas influence the daily weather conditions.

4.
a. The daytime temperatures would be severely affected because the ultraviolet light would be harmful to humans, because there would be no protection from the atmosphere, and infrared light, causing it too be too hot in the day, and too cold in the evening.

Unit 4 B8 #1-6

1. 100kg.
2. 40 liters.
3. 18,000.
4. Levels have increased by 30% because of cars, and more advanced machinery. Before the 1800's there was almost no use for gas or oil, which is the greatest producer of carbon dioxide pollutants.
5. This is the start of many innovations to conserve fuel, and prevent the overuse of oil, which creates excess amounts of carbon dioxide.
6. These people believe that it is necessary, because without this, it will continue down a path of destruction to our planet, causing over stimulation to greenhouse gases.

Unit 3SAS #1-30 (EXCEPT 2,4,9,14,24,25)

1. A hydrocarbon a molecule composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
3. Petroleum can be converted into many different things, including gasoline, diesel fuel, wax, etc.
5. It means a liquid that varies in color and odor.
6. a. 23843
    b. 23843
7. Gasoline, lamp oil, wax.
8. Wax, Vaseline, lamp oil.
10. a. Middle East (686 10^9)
      b. Western Europe (17 10^9)
11. a. North America
      b. Middle East
12. Density can be used to separate water and oil.
13. Water and salt.
15. On paper
16. Fractional distillation is used to separate more than one substance, while simple distillation can only separate two.
17. Refined oils (light), gas oil (medium), wax (heavy).
18. The highest boiling point will be at the bottom of the distillation chart.
19. Once distilled in each group, the distillation process could be repeated to separate them further.
20. Methane, pentane, hexane, octane.
21. A covalent bond is when atoms are shared.
22. Because there are too many to be shared.
23. This analogy describes how the sharing of electrons because they are constantly attempting to keep hold of the proton.
26. a. A structural formula displays the entire description of the atom, while the molecular formula is less detailed in the process.
     b. A structural formula is inadequate because there is no real understanding of where a real electron is, because of its mass.
27. See paper.
28. This only shows four dots because it can only connect four hydrogen atoms.
29. See paper.
30. See paper.

Homework #21

2BSAS #1-8

1. Photons of electromagnetic radiation have energy ranges characteristic of the type of radiation involved. All waves, including photon waves of electromagnetic radiation involves oscillation (frequency).

2. Because it covers so many different types and forms of light.

3. Visible light (i.e. sunlight) is used in photosynthesis because most of the radiant energy emitted by the sun is spread over a large portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the visible radiation energizes electrons in some chemical bonds, which are needed for photosynthesis reactions.

4.

a. Infrared, visible, ultraviolet.

b. Infrared radiation is another form of heat energy, which indicatively heats living things. Visible light affects plant growth, which is why it is the main factor in photosynthesis. Ultraviolet light is directly responsible for physical beings, causing sunburns.

5. Ultraviolet light is affected for this use because it can kill bacteria and destroy viruses. Visible light cannot complete this task because of its inability to break covalent bonds and sterilize materials.

6. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are two of the most common greenhouse gases, and absorb radiation from infrared light and redirect this absorbed light back towards earth. 90% of visible radiation is directed towards Earth’s surface, where the stratosphere absorbs it.

7. The two main effects of the solar radiation that reaches Earth’s surface is more energy, and hotter water effecting the hydrologic cycle.

8.

a. Snow, sand, or concrete, (all asphalts) warms up more quickly when exposed to sunlight. This is because when solar radiation strikes these materials, it is reflected and illuminated back into space. On the other hand, lake water does reflect light, but also stores absorb and stores heat.

b. Water, in forms like water vapor, act as greenhouse gases and absorb infrared light and reradiate it back to earth's surface. Asphalts directly reflect light sources back into space.

4SBS #14-21 

14. CO2 and water vapor are both greenhouse gases, atmospheric gas molecules that effectively absorb infrared radiation, which is not directly coming from the sun. The infrared radiation comes from transformed UV and radiation from the sky. Because this type of energy is essentially heat energy, these gases have trapped light in order to absorb, reradiate, and reflect this heat energy to earth's surface.

15. 

a. Natural: breathing, bacterial decay.

    burning of fossil fuels, agricultural/industrial. 

b. Natural: decomposition of wastes, burning of solid waste.  

    Human: burning of fossil fuels, raising animals/livestock. 

16. 

a. lower altitude, increase in greenhouse/atmospheric gases, higher air pressure.
b. higher altitude, decrease in greenhouse/atmospheric gases, lower air pressure.

17. What goes on in greenhouse with transparent glass imitates the way the greenhouse gases transform UV and visible radiation to IR radiation within clouds, and reradiate and reflect the heat energy within earth, or the greenhouse (since the infrared light cannot escape through the glass, like earth's CO2 and H2O gas that act as a shield). This is why on a sunny winter day, a greenhouse with transparent glass walls is much warmer than is a structure with opaque wooden walls. 

18. See paper. 

19. CO2 gas, calcium carbonate, methane (CH4)

20. The carbon atom could be part of the atmosphere as a gas as a result of photosynthesis, in the lithosphere as plant or animal waste decay, or part of the hydrosphere as limestone.

Extra Credit Report (5)

Good Natured Jokes Ease Pain:


It is said that jokes are proven to lessen the pain. In a study in Switzerland and the U.S. 37 people looked at photographs of sad images (i.e. corpses, car accidents, dangerous animals) and were instructed to either say nothing at all, or a good humored joke. 


In both countries, those who made benevolent jokes about the images had more positive emotions and fewer negative emotions afterward than those who laughed mockingly at the pictures, although both groups who used humor fared better than those who simply looked silently. 


It has been proven that when someone uses whole hearted humor when you're upset, you will feel better. 


http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=good-natured-jokes-ease-pain

Homework #20

18. a. Reusing is the use of the same item multiple times for the same, or different tasks the item is applicable to. Recycling is when an item is reprocessed into a a different item made of parts, or all of the same substances. 
      b. Reusing: water bottles. Recycling: Cans. 

19. a. Soil, water, plants, animals. 

      b. Petroleum, copper, natural gas, coal. 

20. a. reusing. 

      b. recycling.
      c. reusing. 

21. Both glass from a light bulb and paper from a newspaper can be recycled. In fact, since paper that is not recycled leaves a high proportion of combustibles as waste, the newspaper can be sent to a waste-to-energy plant to produce energy that can be used to power the light bulb.

Retrieving Copper Lab

Livia, Sydney, Jimmy Neutron

Retrieving Copper Lab:

Abstract: The purpose of the part one experiment was to extract the Cu from the Copper chloride sample. We preweighed both of the filter paper to 1.02 grams, and waited a day or so to record the weight of the filter paper with the experimented copper samples on it. During the lab, we struggled with correctly measuring the hydrochloric acid, because we poured too much excess. Also, we got set back because we overheated the beaker, which made it more time consuming. The final results of our first copper sample was .66 and for the second, it was .48.

Procedure:

Part I: Separating Copper(II) Oxide (CuO) from the Sample:

The first step in the procedure was to weigh our copper sample. The weight was 1.4 grams. Now that the sample is weighed, we have to distribute 50mL of HCl to the beaker containing the copper oxide mixture. After the mL of HCl was added to our copper chloride mixture, we gently and carefully heated the mixture to 40 degrees Celsius. When we obtained the correct temperature, we maintained that temperature, stirring was required with a glass rod. When we successfully achieved the correct temperature, we removed it from the hot plate. The unreacted copper from there formed a precipitate at the bottom of the beaker. From that point, the copper liquid was filtered into another, empty, 100mL beaker.

Once the first step of the filtration process is done, we washed the solid copper in the first beaker with distilled water. We decanted the liquid in the second beaker, and added it to the liquid we just collected. The mass of the filter paper was 1.02. The filter paper is currently drying overnight.

Part II: Converting Copper (II) Chloride (CuCl2) to Copper (Cu):

The final step in this lab is converting the dissolved copper (ii) chloride into copper metal. Our first step in the second part of the procedure was to cover the top of a beaker with a watch glass. For each gram of copper powder that we started with, we add one gram of zinc. We have noticed that the zinc dissolved into the calcium chloride. From there the zinc turned black, to white, to red. Once the reaction subsided, we added 10mL of HCl to the beaker, and from there we decanted as much of the liquid possible.

The copper from there was carefully washed several times with distilled water. It was added to a piece of filter paper that weighed 0.01 grams, and left it to dry overnight.  

Questions:

1.

a. The evidence that led me to believe the reaction was incomplete was because it took a serious amount of time.

b. By adding more hydrochloric acid.

2.
a. When we first got the copper the weight was 1.4 grams but after we weighted it again it weights .16 grams for the converted one. For the unconverted one we started at 1.4 grams and when we re weighted it, the weight was 1.13 grams.
b. For the converted one the percent was 11.4 percent of the copper that reacted, for the unconverted one  81% of the copper reacted. 

3.

a. Cu2 + Zn2+ à Cu + Zn2-

b.

i. Zn

ii. Cu

iii. distilled water

iiii. HCl

4. The zinc turned black, now the water is turning white, then eventually turning red.

5.

a. Zinc

b. Onto the filter paper.

Homework #19

2CAS #13-17


13. a. 6 moles
      b. 5 moles
      c. 5 moles

14. a. 1 mole

      b. 621 g 
      c. 28 g 
      d. 415 g

15. The percent of the oxygen atoms is 67%, because oxygen's molar mass is 32 and carbon's molar mass is 12 in this molecule. Therefore, the percent oxygen by mass 32g/44g x 100%, or 73%. 

16. 

a. 

molar masses: Ag -216g and S -32g
87% silver by mass
b.
molar masses: Al -54g and O -48g
53% aluminum by mass
c. 
molar masses: Ca-40g; C-12g; O-48g
40% calcium by mass

17. 

a. 68%

b. 10%

c. 6.8%

Homework #18

2CAS #1-12


1. The law of conservation of matter is that matter cannot be created nor destroyed. 


2. Scientific law summarizes what has been learned by careful observation of nature.

3. Those expressions can be interpreted as confusing because molecules can be converted and decomposed by chemical processes, but atoms are forever, and are not "used up" or "thrown away."


4. 
a. Not balanced.
Reactant side: Sn, 1; H, 1; F, 1
Product side: Sn, 1; H, 2; F; 2
b. Not balanced. 
Reactant side: Si, 1; O, 2; C, 1
Product side: Si, 1; O, 1; C, 2
c. Balanced. 
Reactant side: Al, 1; O, 3; H, 6; Cl, 3
Product side: Al, 1; O, 3; H, 6; Cl, 3

5. a. 3
    b. 2 
    c. 1 


6. See on paper.


7. a. 1 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 H2SO4 --> 2 H3PO4 + 3 CaSO4
    b. 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 --> 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

8. 

a. Yes. 

Reactant side: Na, 2; S, 1; O, 4; K, 2; Cl, 1
Product side: Na, 2; S, 1; O, 4; K, 2; Cl, 1
b. No. Although the subscripts remained the same, the coefficients have been altered. 
c. 1 Na2SO4 + 2 KCl --> 2 NaCl + 1 K2SO4

9. ?

10. 

a. 32g
b. 48g
c. 100g
d. 58g
e. 180g

11. Although copper and sodium have different masses, volumes, and densities, the weight of each atom per mole remains the same. 

12. 

a. 1 
b. 0.5 
c. 0.1 
d. .3 

Metal Report: Lead

Metal Report: Lead (Pb)

The metal I chose to report on was lead. Lead is an extremely toxic element, and a really heavy metal. Lead has 82 protons, 82 electrons, and an atomic mass of 207; this indicates that when neutralized, lead has 125 neutrons. As an ion, lead has a positive 2 charge. Lead also has four stable isotopes, 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb; all except for lead-204 can be found in the end products of the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. Lead is very high in toxicity and if one is diagnosed with lead poisoning, it can be fatal. Since 1978, lead’s usage has been significantly reduced. Lead can be found in pottery, electrical storage batteries, cooking appliances, pesticides, and paints. It is still used to paint bridges and other steel structures with paint made with red lead (Pb3O4), a compound of lead and oxygen. Because of its relatively low reactivity (not quite as low as gold or silver), it protects these steel structures from corrosion. This however, is not a threat to the general public, but if used in items that come in contact with humans, will cause lead poisoning that can result in death. Leads symbol (Pb) comes from the Latin name plumbum, like plumber and plumbing, because water pipes in ancient Rome were made of lead. Lead was also used in the US in the paint used on homes built before 1978. Many children would become very sick, especially toddlers, from coming in contact with the flaking paint. Lead-based paint is no longer used in homes; alternatives like water-based paints are used instead. Since lead is so heavy, especially oxidized, it is used to protect from radiation from x-rays and to make weights, such as fishing weights. Since there are fewer regulations in countries like China, lead is still commonly used to produce items. In fact, toys made with lead paint imported from China have affected the US. Children were made sick and even faced death from simply playing with Barbies, action figures, and building kits. It is important to recognize that lead is not only found in less regulated countries, but all over the world. In fact, car batteries are usually made out of significant amounts of lead! Surprisingly enough, the chief producers of lead, or where it is chiefly mined, is, from greatest to least, The US, China, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Japan. Lead is highly abundant, quite unreactive, and found in the lithosphere of earth. Lead is extracted from these ores using pyrometallurgy, the treatment of the metals and their ores with heat, as in a blast furnace-- the common reducing agents being Carbon (coke) and carbon monoxide.

Homework #17

2SBS #9-18


9. Active metals are more reactive than less active metals. Because of this, more active metals are more likely to combine and form compounds with other elements, where as less active metals tend to remain separate. 


10. Silver would have been the easiest to process because of its lack of reactivity. Since silver remains separate from other metals and elements, it would be quite easy to process. 


11. Since most metals are more reactive than metals like silver, gold, and platinum, their reactivities tend to make them combine with other elements and form compounds, or minerals. 


12. a. A reaction between calcium metal with chromium(III) chloride would more likely occur. Calcium metal is more reactive than chromium metal; therefore, putting calcium metal in chromium chloride would create a reaction, where as putting chromium metal in calcium chloride would not form any reaction. 


13 . b. Since zinc is much more reactive than silver, which is barely reactive, putting the metal zinc into a silver solution would cause a reaction; a reaction occurs between a more reactive metal and a less reactive solution. 


14. a. Since iron is more reactive than lead, stirring a solution of lead (II) nitrate with an iron spoon would cause a reaction, and the iron spoon would most likely begin to dissolve. 
      b. Pb^2+(aq) + Fe(s) ---> Pb(s) + Fe^2+(aq)

15. Oxidation is the apparent loss of one or more electrons that causes a metal to become a cation/aqueous solution. Reduction is the apparent gain of one or more electrons that causes a cation/aqueous solution to balance its electrical charge and become a metal. 

16. a. Au^3+ + 3e^- ---> Au

      b. V ---> V^4+ + 4e^-
      c. Cu+ ---> Cu^2+ + 1e^-

17. a. reduction.

      b. oxidation.
      c. reduction. 

18. a. Zn^2+ has been oxidized. Zn loses two electrons to become a cation/aqueous solution, Zn^2+. 

      b. Ni has been reduced. Ni^2+ gains two electrons to essentially rebalance its charge and become a metal/solid as Ni.
      c. The reducing agent in this reaction is Zn.


19. ?


20. a. Al + Cr^3+ ---> Al^3+ + Cr
b. Mn^2+ + Mg ---> Mn + Mg^2+

21. I don't know

22. a. Electrometallurgy.
b. Pyrometallurgy or find the metal uncombined.

Extra Credit Report (4)

Dark Matter: Material Answers

• Dark matter is a theory composed of particles that cannot interact with the electromagnetic force. 
• Unable to interact with light, but do interact gravitationally. 
• The gravitational pull of dark matter stops galaxies from flying apart as they rotate. 
• It is said that there is 5x as much dark matter than regular matter. 
• Both of these types of matter tend to cluster together, because they are both highly affected by gravity. 
• It is said that the universe was originally filled with threads of dark matter, and regular matter formed around them. 
• This created galaxies.
• Dr. Dietrich and his colleagues detected the part of a thread that runs between two groups of galaxies; the light and dark matter. 
• they did so by looking through the distorted effect of the thread's gravity. 
• They concluded the threads shape and its mass, which is about 60 trillion times the mass of the sun. 
• This article is important to me because it is very interesting to know that there is enough dark matter 60 trillion times larger than the mass of the sun. 

Homework #16

2SAS #26- 34

26. Metallic elements are more likely to lose electrons.
27. Noble gas elements are unreactive and chemically inert. 
28.
a. cation.
b. cation.
c. anion.
d. cation.
e. anion. 
f. cation
g. cation.
h. anion.
29.

a. Copper metal ions because copper metals form cations, and the only difference between copper metal and copper (II) ions is the absence of 2 electrons.


30. 156+254=410
      410/2=205; 205 pm. 
      The diameter of a calcium ion (Ca^2+) = 205 pm.
31. a. 
Chemical cause: oxidization or rusting results in a change in color.
Physical cause: painting a substance results in a change in color. 
b.
Chemical cause: combustion causes a change in temperature.
Physical cause: boiling a substance will raise the temperature.
c.
Chemical cause: the reaction of HCl and Cu causes the formation of a gas. 
Physical cause: after boiling, water will become a gas (water vapor) as it evaporates. 

32.
a. Bromine (Br). 
b. Silicon (Si).

33.
In analyzing our Snake River data to solve the fish-kill mystery in Unit 1, we had to compare mass changes among the different substances we tested for with the normal masses. We used our knowledge of properties of the different substances to create legitimate and logical hypotheses.


34. Argon would have had to be placed after potassium and cobalt would have had to be placed after nickel, in order to be accurate in Mendeleev's original periodic table. 
2SBS:
1.
Atmosphere: nitrogen, oxygen, neon, and argon. 
Hydrosphere: water and dissolved minerals. 
Lithosphere: petroleum and metal-bearing ores. 

2. a. 
The crust: top 40km: the thin band of soil and rock containing major raw materials needed to build all manufactured objects. 
The mantle: 40-2900km: the middle layer of the lithosphere. 
The core: 2900km: Earth's center: extremely hot.
b. 
The crust serves as the main storehouse of chemical resources used in manufacturing consumer products. 

3. a. Mexico.
b. Japan.
c. China. 
4. China produces the largest masses of the eight listed resources. 
5. Ores are naturally occurring rocks or minerals that can be mined and from which are profitable to extract a metal or other metal. Minerals are naturally occurring solid compounds containing the element or group of elements of interest. 

6. -the quantity of useful ore found at the site.
-the percent of metal in the ore. 
-the type of mining and processing needed to extract the metal from its ore. 
-the distance between the mine and metal-refining facilities and markets.
-the metal's supply-versus-demand status. 
-the environmental impact of the mining and metal processing. 
7. Maybe the gold had replenished after 100 years and demand for gold was high. 
8. Useful ore refers to the amount, usually as a percent, of the desired mineral being mined.

Homework #15

13. a. A horizontal row is also a period, with elements listed in order of increasing atomic numbers.
    b. A vertical column is a group, that contains elements with similar properties.

14. Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K).

15. a. The noble gases are located on the far right side of the periodic table.

    b. Noble gases are unreactive. 
    c. Noble gases are chemically inert. 

16. a. MgF2
    b. GaP

17. 

Potassium is right between sodium and rubidium on the periodic table:

98+39=137
137/2=68.5

18. I would expect the boiling point of chlorine to be lower than that of iodine. From what I have observed, I believe that elements with higher atomic weights have higher boiling points than those with lower atomic weights. Chlorine has a lower atomic weight (35.45) than iodine (126.90), so, chlorine must have a lower boiling point. 

19. 

Completed chart:

20. 

a. 4 protons, 4 or 5 neutrons, 4 electrons.
b. 7 protons, 7 or 8 neutrons, 7 electrons.
c. 10 protons, 10 or 11 neutrons, 10 electrons. 

21. Although protons are positive, when an atom forms an ion, it either loses or gains electrons. Since a lead ion with a 2+ charge was formed, the atom must have lost two electrons.

22. 

a.
Carbon: 6+6=12, or 6+7=13; 12 or 13
Calcium: 20+21=41; 41
Platinum: 78+117=195; 195
Uranium: 92+146=238; 238

b. Carbon has two isotopes in the table. 

23. No, the discovery of a new element would not be justified by only its mass number. It would be more helpful to know either the atomic weight or atomic number in order to be able estimate physical and chemical properties of the element and its probable spot on the periodic table. An element's mass number does not provide enough information to justify its existence. 

24. The mass of an electron is about 1/2000 the mass of a proton or a neutron. Because of its minuscule weight, it is insignificant, and not used to calculate the mass number of an atom.

25. 

Completed Chart: